The art of metallurgy
In fact, the scientific significance of metallurgy was formed much earlier than the economic one. Metallurgy was originally called the art of extracting metals from ores, and only today metallurgy has become an independent industry and branch of the national economy.
Metallurgy is the science of the industrial extraction of metals. Back in the 16th century, the scientist and physician Georg Agricola (real name Georg Bauer) laid the foundations of modern science by writing "12 books on metals". In particular, they say that the main task of metallurgy is to melt the mined ore "for the benefit of the business." This means that through various processes it is necessary to separate slag from the ore and obtain pure metals from it.
In an excerpt from the works of Agricola it is said: “By subjecting the ore to heating, roasting and calcination, this removes part of the substances mixed with the metal. A lot of impurities are taken away when crushing ore in mortars, even more when washing, screening and sorting. However, in this way it is still impossible to separate everything that hides the metal from the eyes. Melting is necessary, because only by means of it are rocks and hardened juices separated from metals, which acquire their characteristic color, are purified and become useful to man in many respects.
Indeed, smelting - this physical and chemical process is today called pyrometallurgical - is still part of metallurgy today, but this is not the only method and not the only possible technology for extracting metals. Pyrometallurgical processes are used to obtain the largest metallurgical products in terms of output - iron and steel, and a number of other valuable metals and alloys are also smelted. However, at the end of the 19th century, another technology that became widespread was hydrometallurgy.
In the general case, it is believed that hydrometallurgical processes are necessary for the extraction of rare, scattered, especially valuable metals, but this principle does not always work. For example, even copper is often mined using hydrometallurgy.
Pyrometallurgical processes are based on chemical roasting reactions. In this case, firing can be oxidative (this is how steel appears), reducing, sulfatizing (this is how copper, lead, zinc appear), etc. Hydrometallurgy processes - leaching and precipitation of metals from solutions, extraction, sorption of metals. So, say, with the help of sulfuric acid, copper, zinc, uranium are leached, with the help of soda - molybdenum, tungsten.
Despite the fact that hydrometallurgy is a more recent technology, pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes should not be opposed. They often accompany or precede each other (hydrometallurgical processes - pyrometallurgical). After the metals are obtained in one way or another, they go through the stages of purification (refining) and heat treatment in order to improve their physical and chemical properties, most often strength.
Special types of metallurgical processes today are also electrometallurgy, powder metallurgy and metallothermy. For example, powder metallurgy is based on the use of metal powders. Their particles are very small - ranging in size from 0.1 microns to 0.5 mm; they are first pressed and then sintered. Also in many countries there is a study and implementation of various latest metallurgical technologies, such as bioleaching, biooxidation, biosorption, bioprecipitation, solution purification.
History of metallurgy
Traces of the development of metallurgy are found in various cultures and civilizations at various times, up to the 7-6th millennium BC.
The first evidence that a man mined metals was discovered by archaeologists in the territories of present-day Serbia, Bulgaria, Spain, and Great Britain. Scientists have found there, in particular, copper axes. Later, people learned to extract not only copper, but also tin from the rock, and in the 3500s BC, the so-called Bronze Age began. Following copper, people began to use iron. It is believed that the technology of mining this metal was invented by the Hittites (the Indo-European people of Asia Minor) around 1200 BC, and this was the beginning of the Iron Age.
Subsequently, more and more new technologies appeared: various tools for war and agriculture were made from iron and other metals and impurities, metals were also used in the construction of cities. In this regard, the metallurgical industry also developed everywhere - from the eastern nomads, who knew the art of blacksmithing, and the inhabitants of China, who learned how to get liquid iron, to India, where columns were created from metals, on which there is still not a shred of rust, and the ancient Romans, who were engaged in mining and forging. At the same time, it is believed that the founders of metallurgy as an industry are the Chinese, since many of the methods, devices and technologies of this science were invented in ancient China, and then the Europeans mastered this craft by inventing blast furnaces, cast iron, steel, etc.
The modern history of the development of metallurgy in Russia begins with the construction of the first metallurgical plants in the Urals at the beginning of the 18th century and the creation of mining districts, which included not only plants, but also mines, mines, forests, quarries, and auxiliary production.
metallurgy industry
Today, metallurgy includes:
— production of metals;
- obtaining alloys;
– metal processing;
- welding;
— deposition of metal coatings;
- materials science, or the study of the physicochemical properties of metals and alloys.
Industries related to metallurgy are the development, production and operation of machines, apparatus, and equipment used in metallurgy. Also, the production of refractory materials, coke chemistry, etc. is closely connected with metallurgy.
Metallurgy is divided into ferrous and non-ferrous. This is due to the fact that metals are usually divided into ferrous (iron and alloys) and all the rest. It is easy to guess that ferrous metallurgy includes the extraction of ferrous metal ores, the production of iron, steel, ferroalloys, the rolling of ferrous metals, steel, cast iron and other products. Non-ferrous metallurgy includes the production of heavy non-ferrous (copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel) and light non-ferrous (aluminum, titanium, magnesium) metals.
Education of metallurgists
For the extraction of different types of metals, enterprises use different methods and technologies, and they are constantly developing and improving, as in other industries. Most of the processes are automated, IT modeling and analysis are applied. This cannot but be reflected in the process of training specialists in the metallurgical industry, and not only in specialized universities, but also directly in production. Quite often, large metallurgical enterprises develop and implement such educational programs.
Metallurgy- (from the Greek metallurgeo - I mine ore, process metals) - the field of science and technology, industry. Metallurgy includes:
Production of metals from natural raw materials and other metal-containing products;
Obtaining alloys;
Processing of metals in hot and cold condition;
Application of metal coatings;
A field of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals, intermetallic compounds, and alloys.
Metallurgy is associated with the development, production and operation of machines, apparatus, units used in the metallurgical industry.
Varieties of metallurgy
Metallurgy is divided into ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous metallurgy includes the extraction and enrichment of ferrous metal ores, the production of cast iron, steel, and ferroalloys. Ferrous metallurgy also includes the production of rolled ferrous metals, steel, cast iron and other ferrous metal products. Non-ferrous metallurgy includes mining, enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores, production of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. Coke chemistry and the production of refractory materials are closely related to metallurgy.
Ferrous metals include iron. All others are colored. According to their physical properties and purpose, non-ferrous metals are conditionally divided into heavy (copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel) and light (aluminum, titanium, magnesium).
According to the main technological process, it is divided into pyrometallurgy (smelting) and hydrometallurgy (extraction of metals in chemical solutions). A variation of pyrometallurgy is plasma metallurgy.
The most common metals are:
1) Aluminum
Ferrous metallurgy
Ferrous metallurgy serves as the basis for the development of machine building (one third of the metal produced goes into machine building) and construction (1/4 of the metal goes into construction).
Ferrous metallurgy composition
Ferrous metallurgy includes the following main sub-sectors:
Extraction and enrichment of ferrous metal ores (iron, chromium and manganese ore)
Extraction and enrichment of non-metallic raw materials for ferrous metallurgy (fluxed limestones, refractory clays, etc.);
Production of ferrous metals (cast iron, carbon steel, rolled metal, ferrous metal powders);
Manufacture of steel and cast iron pipes;
Coke chemical industry (production of coke, coke oven gas, etc.);
Secondary processing of ferrous metals (cutting scrap and waste of ferrous metals).
Metallurgical cycle of ferrous metallurgy
The actual metallurgical cycle is the production
1) iron and blast furnace production,
2) steel (open-hearth, oxygen-converter and electric steel-smelting), (continuous casting, CCM),
3) rolling (rolling production).
Enterprises producing pig iron, carbon steel and rolled metal belong to full-cycle metallurgical enterprises.
Enterprises without iron smelting are classified as so-called conversion metallurgy. "Small metallurgy" is the production of steel and rolled products at machine-building plants. Combines are the main type of ferrous metallurgy enterprises.
Raw materials and fuel play an important role in locating the full-cycle ferrous metallurgy, especially the role of combinations of iron ores and coking coal.
Non-ferrous metallurgy
Non-ferrous metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy that includes the extraction, enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores and the smelting of non-ferrous metals and their alloys. By physical properties and purpose, non-ferrous metals can be conditionally divided into heavy (copper, lead, zinc, tin, nickel) and light (aluminum, titanium, magnesium). Based on this division, the metallurgy of light metals and the metallurgy of heavy metals are distinguished.
Location of industry enterprises
The location of non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises depends on many economic and natural conditions, especially on the raw material factor. A significant role, in addition to raw materials, is played by the fuel and energy factor.
Several main non-ferrous metallurgy bases have been formed on the territory of Russia. Their differences in specialization are explained by the dissimilarity of the geography of light metals (aluminum, titanium-magnesium industry) and heavy metals (copper, lead-zinc, tin, nickel-cobalt industries).
Heavy metals
The production of heavy non-ferrous metals, due to the small need for energy, is confined to the areas of extraction of raw materials.
In terms of reserves, extraction and enrichment of copper ores, as well as copper smelting, the Ural economic region occupies a leading place in Russia, on the territory of which Krasnouralsky, Kirovgradsky, Sredneuralsky, Mednogorsky combines stand out.
The lead-zinc industry as a whole gravitates towards areas where polymetallic ores are distributed. Such deposits include Sadonskoye (Northern Caucasus), Salairskoye (Western Siberia), Nerchenskoye (Eastern Siberia) and Dalnegorskoye (Far East).
The centers of the Nickel-Cobalt industry are the cities of Norilsk (Eastern Siberia), Nikel and Monchegorsk (Northern Economic Region).
light metals
To obtain light metals, a large amount of energy is required. Therefore, the concentration of enterprises that smelt light metals near cheap energy sources is the most important principle of their location.
The raw materials for aluminum production are bauxites from the North-West region (Boksitogorsk), the Urals (the city of Severouralsk), nephelines of the Kola Peninsula (Kirovsk) and southern Siberia (Goryachegorsk). Aluminum oxide - alumina - is isolated from this aluminum raw material in mining areas. Obtaining metallic aluminum from it requires large amounts of electricity. Therefore, aluminum plants are built near large power plants, mainly hydroelectric power plants (Bratskaya, Krasnoyarsk, etc.)
The titanium-magnesium industry is located mainly in the Urals, both in the regions where raw materials are extracted (the Berezniki titanium-magnesium plant) and in the regions of cheap energy (the Ust-Kamenogorsk titanium-magnesium plant). The final stage of titanium-magnesium metallurgy - the processing of metals and their alloys - is most often located in areas where finished products are consumed.
Story
The first evidence that a person was engaged in metallurgy dates back to 5-6 millennia BC. e. and have been found at Majdanpek, Pločnik and other sites in Serbia (including a 5500 BC copper ax belonging to the Vinca culture), Bulgaria (5000 BC), Palmela (Portugal), Spain, Stonehenge (UK). However, as is often the case with such long-standing phenomena, the age cannot always be accurately determined.
In the culture of early times, silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron are present, which allowed limited metalworking. Thus, the "Heavenly daggers" were highly valued - Egyptian weapons created from meteoric iron 3000 BC. e. But, having learned how to extract copper and tin from rock and get an alloy called bronze, people in 3500 BC. e. entered the Bronze Age.
Obtaining iron from ore and smelting metal was much more difficult. The technology is believed to have been invented by the Hittites around 1200 BC. e., which marked the beginning of the Iron Age. The secret of mining and making iron became a key factor in the power of the Philistines.
Traces of the development of ferrous metallurgy can be traced in many past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and the Near East, ancient Egypt and Anatolia (Turkey), Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient and medieval Europe, China, India, Japan, etc. It should be noted that many methods, devices and metallurgy technologies were originally invented in ancient China, and then the Europeans mastered this craft (inventing blast furnaces, cast iron, steel, hydraulic hammers, etc.).
However, recent research suggests that Roman technology was much more advanced than previously thought, especially in mining and forging.
Mining metallurgy
Mining metallurgy is the extraction of valuable metals from ore and the remelting of the extracted raw materials into pure metal. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide into a pure metal, the ore must be separated by physical, chemical, or electrolytic means.
Metallurgists work with three main components: raw materials, concentrate (valuable metal oxide or sulfide) and waste. After mining, large chunks of ore are crushed to such an extent that each particle is either a valuable concentrate or waste.
Mining is not necessary if the ore and environment allow for leaching. In this way, you can dissolve the mineral and get a mineral-enriched solution.
Often, the ore contains several valuable metals. In such a case, waste from one process can be used as feedstock for another process.
Metal properties
Metals in general have the following physical properties:
Hardness.
Sound conductivity.
High melting point.
High boiling point.
At room temperature, metals are in a solid state (with the exception of mercury, the only metal that is in a liquid state at room temperature).
The polished surface of the metal shines.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They have a high density.
Metal Applications
Copper has ductility and high electrical conductivity. That is why it has found its wide application in electrical cables.
Gold and silver are very viscous, viscous and inert, therefore they are used in jewelry (especially gold, which does not oxidize). Gold is also used to make non-oxidizing electrical connections.
Iron and steel are hard and durable. Due to these properties, they are widely used in construction.
Aluminum is malleable and conducts heat well. It is used to make pans and foil. Due to its low density - in the manufacture of aircraft parts.
Alloys
An alloy is a macroscopically homogeneous mixture of two or more chemical elements with a predominance of metallic components. The main or only phase of the alloy, as a rule, is a solid solution of alloying elements in the metal, which is the basis of the alloy.
Alloys have metallic properties, such as metallic luster, high electrical and thermal conductivity. Sometimes the alloy components can be not only chemical elements, but also chemical compounds with metallic properties. For example, the main components of hard alloys are tungsten or titanium carbides. The macroscopic properties of alloys always differ from the properties of their components, and the macroscopic homogeneity of multiphase (heterogeneous) alloys is achieved due to the uniform distribution of impurity phases in the metal matrix.
Alloys are usually obtained by mixing the components in the molten state, followed by cooling. At high melting temperatures of the components, alloys are produced by mixing metal powders followed by sintering (this is how many tungsten alloys are obtained, for example).
Alloys are one of the main structural materials. Among them, alloys based on iron and aluminum are of the greatest importance. Non-metals, such as carbon, silicon, boron, etc., can also be introduced into the composition of many alloys. More than 5 thousand alloys are used in technology.
Alloys used in industry differ in their purpose.
Structural alloys:
Duralumin
Structural with special properties (e.g. intrinsic safety, anti-friction properties):
To fill bearings:
For measuring and electric heating equipment:
Manganin
For making cutting tools:
will win
The industry also uses heat-resistant, fusible and corrosion-resistant alloys, thermoelectric and magnetic materials, as well as amorphous alloys.
The most commonly used alloys are aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. Much effort has been devoted to the study of alloys of iron and carbon. Ordinary carbon steel is used to create cheap, high-strength products where weight and corrosion are not critical.
Stainless or galvanized steel is used when corrosion resistance is important. Aluminum and magnesium alloys are used when strength and lightness are required.
Copper-nickel alloys (such as monel metal) are used in corrosive environments and for the manufacture of non-magnetizable products. Nickel-based superalloys (eg Inconel) are used at high temperatures (turbochargers, heat exchangers, etc.). At very high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used.
Metal is the basis, the foundation of modern industry. The growth of all branches of the national economy largely depends on the development of metallurgy. The metallurgical industry plays an exceptionally important role in the planned deployment of socialist production and in the formation of industrial regions and centres.
In the locations of large metallurgy enterprises, enterprises of a number of industries are concentrated - energy, chemical, machine-building, etc. The creation of heavy industry enterprises, in turn, causes a large transport construction, leads to the emergence of large cities. Therefore, in the practice of locating enterprises of the metallurgical industry, much attention is paid to design and survey work and technical and economic calculations to justify the correct choice of the construction area.
When deciding on the location of metallurgical enterprises, the availability of the necessary raw material, fuel and energy base and water resources in the construction areas is, as a rule, of decisive importance.
Plants with a complete metallurgical production cycle include sequentially the smelting of iron, steel, and the production of rolled products (rails, beams, sheets, etc.). The main raw material is iron ore, and coke and partly gas are used as fuel. In addition, limestone, manganese ore and refractories are needed in the production of pig iron. In general, about 6 tons of raw materials, fuel and other materials are required for 1 ton of finished products (rolled products). The remoteness of metallurgical enterprises from raw materials and fuel and energy bases would lead to large unproductive transportation costs and an increase in the cost of production.
Metallurgical plants are located in areas of iron ore deposits or in areas of coal deposits (Donbass and Krivoy Rog, the Urals and Kuzbass). For a long time, the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Plant was supplied with Kuzbass coal, and the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Plant - with Ural iron ore. At present, these relations between the Urals and Kuzbass have changed significantly, since a powerful Karaganda coal basin has been created at a much shorter distance from the Urals, and in Gornaya Shorni (Kemerovo region) iron ore is mined in large quantities, going to the Kuznetsk metallurgical plant. Metallurgical enterprises are also located between the sources of raw materials and fuel, in the immediate vicinity of them (plants in the Dnieper and Azov regions).
In some cases, metallurgical plants are located in areas where a large amount of metal is consumed. An example is the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant, which operates on Pechora coal and iron ore in Karelia and the Kola Peninsula and supplies products mainly to Leningrad.
A significant amount of steel is smelted from scrap metal. Metallurgical enterprises operating on this raw material (Krasny Oktyabr plants in Volgograd, Sickle and Hammer plants in Moscow, etc.) belong to the so-called pig metallurgy, and when they are located, the presence of large-scale metal scrap nearby is taken into account. As a rule, conversion metallurgy plants are located in large centers of the machine-building industry.
Metallurgical enterprises producing special steels and ferroalloys consume a large amount of electricity and therefore are located "not only near sources
raw materials, but also in areas with cheap electricity, primarily hydropower (Zaporozhye, Zestaponi, Ermak, etc.).
Other factors influence the location of non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises. Ores of non-ferrous metals contain, as a rule, an insignificant amount of pure metal, which makes the long-distance transportation of this ore irrational. In addition, non-ferrous metal ores are relatively less common throughout the USSR than ferrous metal ores, and their commercial reserves are smaller.
To smelt 1 ton of blister copper, it is necessary to process tens and hundreds of tons of copper ore. Therefore, although the smelting of blister copper consumes a relatively large amount of fuel and electricity, the copper-smelting industry is located near sources of raw materials.
Enterprises for the production of metallic aluminum, magnesium and some other metals are usually concentrated in areas where there is a lot of cheap electricity. For example, for the smelting of 1 ton of aluminum, about 20 thousand kWh of electrical energy is consumed, and the production of magnesium requires even more energy.
A powerful metallurgical industry has been created in the USSR, which meets the needs of the national economy in cast iron, steel, rolled products and non-ferrous metals. A lot of work is being done to systematically distribute this most important branch of heavy industry throughout the country.
Ferrous metallurgy. Tsarist Russia ranked fifth in the world in the production of ferrous metals in 1913 after the USA, Germany, England and France. Before the revolution, many of the richest iron ore deposits now explored were known.
Exploration and industrial development of new deposits have improved the location of iron ore mining. Previously, its production was concentrated mainly in Krivoy Rog and partly in the Urals; in Siberia it was negligible. The placement of metallurgy was extremely irrational. The production of ferrous metals was concentrated mainly in two regions - in the South and in the Urals. These areas on the eve of the First World War produced over 90% of iron smelting in Russia.
A turning point in the development of the metallurgical industry was achieved only during the years of Soviet power as a result of the reconstruction of old metallurgical plants and the creation of new large metallurgical bases. The metallurgical base of the European part of the USSR was greatly expanded and strengthened, where large metallurgical enterprises were put into operation and old factories were reconstructed.
During the years of the five-year plans, new iron ore deposits began to be widely exploited in the Urals, in Western Siberia,
Kazakhstan and the Center. As a result of the industrial development of new deposits, the share of the Krivoy Rog basin in the total production of iron ore in the country has decreased and the share of the eastern regions has significantly increased. The creation of new iron ore enterprises in a number of economic regions, as well as the expansion and reconstruction of existing enterprises, ALLOWED pe3KQ to increase iron ore production in the country.
In the eastern regions, large metallurgical bases of the USSR have been created, using the coking coals of Kuzbass and Karaganda, the iron ores of the Urals and Western Siberia. New enterprises of the metallurgical industry arose in Kazakhstan and Central Asia, Transcaucasia, the North-West, Siberia and the Far East.
Great success has been achieved in the production of electric steels and high-quality rolled products. Large capacities for the production of electric steel have been created in different parts of the country. High-quality metal began to be produced at a number of reconstructed factories in the Urals and Ukraine. In addition, new factories have been built in the Center, in the Ukraine, in the Volga region and in the Urals, which produce high-quality steels for the automotive, tractor and tool industries.
To provide metallurgy with ferroalloys, large plants for their production were created in Transcaucasia (Zestafoni), in the South (Zaporozhye), in the Urals (Chelyabinsk, Serov), in Western Siberia (Novokuznetsk), Kazakhstan (Aktyubinsk, Ermak) and some other regions of the USSR.
The creation of new ferrous metallurgy enterprises, as well as the development of conversion metallurgy in many economic regions, has improved the location of this branch of industry. The sharp increase in metal smelting in the eastern regions was of great economic importance. In the first years of the Great Patriotic War, the entire burden of supplying the country with metal fell on the eastern regions (including the Urals). Here, the construction of new factories and workshops was carried out at a high pace, mass production of metal for the military industry was organized in a short time, significant work was done to expand the raw material base of the ferrous metallurgy. The metallurgical industry of the eastern regions received further development in the postwar period. At present, the production of ferrous metals in the east of the USSR significantly exceeds the total production of metal in pre-revolutionary Russia.
In the smelting of iron and steel, in the extraction of iron ore, our country now occupies the first place in the world, and in the production of rolled products - the second.
In 1984, steel production reached 154.2 million tons, finished rolled products - 107.3 million tons.
The production of cast iron, steel, rolled ferrous metals is concentrated mainly in the five most important metallurgical bases of national importance. The leading place among them belongs to the southern base, which has large deposits of iron and manganese ores, coking coal. There are a number of powerful mining and processing plants for processing iron ores from the Krivoy Rog basin, manganese ores are mined in Nikopol and Bolshoy Tokmal, and coking coal is mined in the Donbass.
The metallurgical plants of the South are located in three districts. The first of them is the Dnieper region (Krivoy Rog, Zaporozhye, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Dnepropetrovsk), and full-cycle plants here are combined with conversion metallurgy. The second region is Donbass (Donetsk, Enakievo, Makeevka, Kramatorsk, etc.). Full cycle metallurgy prevails in this area. The third region is Priazovye (Zhdanov).
The second metallurgical base is Ural. It relies on Kuznetsk and Karaganda coal and partly on the iron ores of Kazakhstan and the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA). The main centers of ferrous metallurgy in the Urals are Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk, Novotroitsk.
The third Siberian metallurgical base uses iron ores of Gornaya Shorni, Khakassia and the Angara-Ilim basin, coals of Kuzbass. The full cycle metallurgy is represented by the Kuznetsk plant and the West Siberian plant, and the conversion metallurgy is represented by plants in Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky.
The country's fourth metallurgical base has been created in Kazakhstan. It uses local raw materials and fuel and is represented by a full cycle metallurgical plant in Temirtau (near Karaganda) and ferroalloy plants.
The fifth, central metallurgical base includes foundry iron and blast-furnace ferroalloys plants in Tula and Lipetsk, steel and rolled metal production in Moscow, Elektrostal, Gorky, and large enterprises of a full metallurgical cycle - Novolipetsk and Novotulsky plants. In the KMA region, the largest Oskol electrometallurgical plant is being built for the production of metallized pellets and steel using a domainless method.
The ferrous metallurgy of the Center works on Donetsk coal and iron ores of the KMA, where Lebedinsky, Mikhailovsky and Stoilensky mining and processing plants have been created.
In addition to the above-mentioned metallurgical bases of Union significance, enterprises of the ferrous metallurgy are also located in other regions. In the Northern region there is the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant, which operates on the iron ores of the Kola Peninsula (Kostomukshsky, Kovdorsky and Olenegorsky GOKs) and coking coals of the Pechora basin. Another center of ferrous metallurgy arose in Transcaucasia (Rustavi) on Dashkesan ores, Tkvarcheli and Tkibul coals. Converting metallurgy plants have been built in the Volga region, Central Asia, and the Far East. In the eleventh five-year plan, such plants were put into operation in the Moldavian SSR (the city of Rybnitsa) and in Belarus (the city of Zhlobin).
Particular attention in ferrous metallurgy is paid to improving the quality of metal, expanding the range of rolled products and pipes, hardware. The smelting of oxygen-converter steel has been considerably increased, the proportion of electric steel production is increasing, and the continuous casting of steel is expanding, and the use of oxygen and natural gas in metallurgical production is increasing.
The unit capacities of the units have increased significantly. Blast furnaces with a volume of 5,000 m3, oxygen converters with a smelting mass of 350 tons, and high-performance rolling mills have been put into operation and are being built. The ferrous metallurgy of the USSR is characterized by a high level of concentration and combination of production.
The most important tasks for the further development of ferrous metallurgy are the renewal of fixed production assets, the development and development of new efficient technological processes and equipment for steel smelting, out-of-furnace processing and casting, the production of high-quality, economical metal products, the acceleration of the replacement of open-hearth furnaces with converters and electric furnaces, an increase in the production of heat-strengthened rolled products, development powder metallurgy. By 1990, the output of finished rolled products will reach 116-119 million tons.
Non-ferrous metallurgy. During the years of socialist construction, non-ferrous metallurgy has become one of the highly developed branches of heavy industry. In the pre-revolutionary period, it was developed very poorly. Metals such as aluminum, magnesium, nickel were not mined or produced at all in tsarist Russia. The need for many non-ferrous metals was met exclusively through imports.
During the years of Soviet power, the raw material base of non-ferrous metallurgy has essentially been recreated. Large deposits of copper, lead, zinc, aluminum raw materials, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, titanium and other important types of raw materials for non-ferrous metallurgy have been explored. Most non-ferrous metal ores are complex, that is, they contain several non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc, silver, gold, bismuth).
In terms of explored reserves of copper, lead, zinc, nickel, bauxites, mercury, and tungsten, the Soviet Union occupies one of the leading places in the world. Powerful non-ferrous metallurgy has been created in the USSR on the basis of deposits of non-ferrous metal ores.
The aluminum and copper industries are developing especially rapidly, the production of alloying metals is expanding, and the development of the raw material base for the production of aluminum, lead, tungsten, molybdenum, antimony, tin and mercury is accelerating. Development
Ores are mined both by open and underground methods using high-performance complexes. The national economic plans provide for a more complete extraction of metal from ores, the integrated use of raw materials and production waste at metallurgical plants.
The leading role in the production of non-ferrous metals is played by the regions of the Russian Federation (North-West, Urals, Siberia and the Far East), as well as Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Central Asia and Transcaucasia (see the map on p. 147).
Copper industry. Mіd, with many valuable qualities, among which high electrical conductivity and malleability stand out, is widely used in mechanical engineering, especially in the electrical industry, the construction of power lines and communications. Copper is also an important component in the production of alloys with other metals (lead, zinc, nickel, aluminum and tin).
The enterprises of the copper-smelting industry of the USSR are mainly located in the areas of copper ore deposits. This is due to the fact that the transportation of copper ore is very uneconomical, since the copper content in it is negligible compared, for example, with the metal content in iron ore.
Large copper-smelting plants are located in the Urals. Krasnouralsky, Kirovgradsky, Revdinsky, Karabashsky and Mednogorsky plants stand out in the production of blister copper, and Verkhne-Pyshminsky and Kyshtymsky in the production of refined copper. A large Gaisky mining and processing plant was built in the Orenburg region.
The leading place in terms of reserves, production and enrichment of copper belongs to Kazakhstan. The large plants built here - Balkhash, Dzhezkazgan and Irtysh (Glubokoe) - produce blister and refined copper. The Alaverdi plant operates in Armenia. In Georgia, the construction of the Madneuli mining and processing plant has been completed. Copper refining plants are also located in areas of its mass consumption - in Moscow, Kolchugino, Leningrad, etc.
Lead and zinc industry. Zinc and lead are widely used in many sectors of the national economy. Zinc is used for galvanizing iron sheets, telegraph wires, pipes for various purposes and other products. It is especially important for obtaining many valuable alloys. Zinc production is very energy intensive.
Lead-zinc ores mined from deposits containing a small percentage of pure metal (2-4%) are enriched during processing. As a result, concentrates with a zinc content of 40 to 60% are obtained, which are used in metallurgical production. Due to the high transportability of zinc concentrates, plants for
it is expedient to place zinc production near fuel and energy bases.
Before the revolution, zinc was smelted only in the North Caucasus, while lead was smelted in the North Caucasus and the Far East. During the years of Soviet power, large enterprises of the zinc industry* were built in Western Siberia (Belovo), Kazakhstan (Ust-Kamenogorsk lead-peak plant and Leninogorsk lead and zinc plants), in the Urals (Chelyabinsk) and Ukraine (Konstantinovka). The production capacities of zinc industry enterprises in the North Caucasus have sharply increased.
In the production of lead, the consumption of electricity and fuel is negligible. In this regard, the fuel and energy factor is not the main factor in the placement of lead plants. The main enterprises of the lead industry are located in Kazakhstan (Chimkent), in the North Caucasus (Ordzhonikidze) and in the Far East (Dalnegorsk).
Nickel industry. Nickel is one of the refractory metals. Nickel, which has a high hardness, can be used to obtain many valuable alloys with other metals (iron, chromium, manganese, copper and zinc). Nickel is of great importance in the production of alloyed steels and in the application of protective coatings of metal products. Monchegorsk, Ufalei, Orsk, Norilsk and other nickel plants and combines were put into operation, among them the Norilsk copper-nickel plant in the north of the Krasnoyarsk Territory stands out, its capacity has increased significantly in recent years as a result of the development of the Talnakh deposit.
Aluminum and magnesium industry. Aluminum and magnesium are of great economic importance. Aluminum has high structural properties, lightness, sufficient mechanical strength, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and therefore is widely used in various branches of engineering, construction, and also in the production of consumer goods. Various alloys are made from aluminum, which are not inferior in mechanical properties to high-grade steels (duralumin, silumin, etc.).
Magnesium is used in radio engineering, aviation, chemical, printing and a number of other industries. The widespread use of magnesium is due to its low specific gravity (it is 1.5 times lighter than aluminum), the ability to form light alloys with aluminum, zinc, zirconium and other metals. Magnesium alloys have high strength and heat resistance. A powerful raw material base for the aluminum and magnesium industry has been created in the USSR.
The production of aluminum has two cycles: the production of alumina and the production of metallic aluminum. Enterprises for the production of alumina - the feedstock of the aluminum industry - are located near the sources of raw materials (bauxite and nepheline), since its consumption for the production of 1 ton of alumina is very high. In the production of metallic aluminum and magnesium, a large amount of electricity is consumed, so the aluminum and magnesium industries are located near cheap energy sources.
During the years of socialist construction, an aluminum industry was created in the Northwest, the North, the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, Kazakhstan, the Ukraine and the Transcaucasus. In the Northwest, alumina production is concentrated in Boksitogorsk, Volkhov, and Pikalevo. In the Urals, plants for the production of alumina are located in Krasnoturinsk and Kamensk-Uralsky, in Kazakhstan the Pavlodar plant operates, in Siberia - Achinsk. Plants for the production of metallic aluminum are located in Zaporozhye, Volgograd, Kandalaksha, Volkhov, Sumgayit.
In recent years, the eastern regions have begun to occupy an increasing share in aluminum production. Plants for the production of metallic aluminum have been built in Novokuznetsk, Pavlodar, Shelekhov (Irkutsk region), Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk, and the city of Tursunzade (Tajik SSR). An aluminum smelter is being built near the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP (Sayanogorsk).
The rapid growth in the production of tin, tungsten, molybdenum, antimony, mercury and other non-ferrous metals will make it possible to meet the needs of the electric power industry, the production of alloyed steels and heat-resistant alloys, and other national economic needs.
Along with the expansion and better use of existing non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, new plants will be built in the country. The predominant part of new enterprises for the smelting of non-ferrous and rare metals is located in the eastern regions, which are rich in ores of these metals and have enormous energy resources.
Thus, capacities will be put into operation at the Sayan aluminum plant, ore mining at the Zhairem polymetallic deposit in Kazakhstan will increase, new capacities for the production of copper and the extraction of lead-zinc ore will be mastered at the Almalyk mining and metallurgical plant in Uzbekistan. In the BAM area, work is underway to develop the Udokan copper and Ozernoe polymetallic deposits.
The word "metallurgy" takes its origins from the ancient Greek language, where "μεταλλουργέω" literally means "mining ore" or "processing metals". This is a certain area of science and technology that describes the processes of obtaining metal from ores or various materials. In addition, in the process of processing, the chemical composition of substances, their structure and properties change. Today, these words are used to refer to the industry, but earlier it was the art of extracting metal from ore.
The modern concept of metallurgy is extensive, it includes:
Production of metals based on (ore) and other materials;
alloy production;
hot and cold working of metals;
welding;
a field of science that studies the physical and chemical properties of metals and alloys;
production of equipment and machines for the metallurgical industry.
The coking industry and production are branches of metallurgy.
Types of metallurgy
Initially, metallurgy, on the basis of raw materials, is divided into: ferrous and. The first type includes iron and its alloys, this includes: mining of black ore, enrichment, production and rolling, and.
The second type includes, respectively, non-ferrous metals: their extraction, enrichment of ores, production of metals and alloys. Non-ferrous metals are heavy (Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Sn) and light (Al, Ti, Mg).
In addition to the raw material, metallurgy can be divided according to the technological process:
1. Pyrometallurgy is processes such as roasting or smelting that take place at high temperatures. Plasma metallurgy is a subspecies of such metallurgy.
2. Hydrometallurgy is an absolutely opposite process, in which metal is extracted from ores using water or chemical reagents based on it, this process is called "leaching".
Scientific progress does not stand still; in the world practice, even microorganisms and biotechnologies are used in metallurgy. These processes include: bioleaching, biooxidation and others. Today, some non-ferrous metals (Cu, Au, Zn, Ni, U) are extracted in this way. However, the most important application of biotechnology is in industrial wastewater treatment.
Metal production and consumption
Areas of use
Few valuable metals are found in sufficient quantities in the earth's crust. For example: Al - 8.9%, Fe - 4.65%, Mg - 2.1%, Ti - 0.63%. It can be seen that the nobler the metal, the less it is found in nature.
The need and production of metals is growing every year. If we consider the period of the past 20 years, we can see that consumption (about 0.8 billion tons) and the metal fund (eight billion tons) have increased.
Metal structures have become the most popular, the scope of consumption has expanded because this material has good properties, and production is economically viable. 72 - 74% of the GNP of many states is production based on the use of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
750 million tons of 800 million tons, which corresponds to 90% of the annual consumption of metals, are steel. Significantly less is consumed - 3%, - 1.5%, - about 5.5 tons, - about 4.5 tons.
USA, UK, France, Italy produce and consume the lion's share of all metals.
Different metals have an individual set of physical properties that are unique to them. Due to properties such as hardness, density, electrical conductivity, melting point, appearance, and others, their scope is quite wide.
Iron has high hardness and strength; in the construction industry, these are irreplaceable and valuable indicators.
It is easy to forge the desired thing from aluminum, it conducts heat well and retains high strength at low temperatures. Therefore, it is widely used for the production of dishes, foil, even in aircraft construction.
Ductile copper has good electrical conductivity, in connection with this, electrical cables are made from it and used in power engineering.
Such an expensive material as gold and silver has good ductility, viscosity and inertness, which, in addition to jewelry, allows it to be used in the manufacture of non-oxidizing electrical connections.
Alloy applications
Metals are rarely used in their pure form; alloys are most often used, which have better performance and characteristic properties. The following alloys are popular in production: aluminum, iron, copper, magnesium, zinc. If it is necessary to use a cheap material with a high strength index, then carbon steel is used.
Fundamentally different from the previous methods of production above - powder metallurgists. The main idea is that the metal is used in the form of a powder, the particle size is 0.1 - 0.5 microns. Ferrous metal particles are pressed together and then sintered. Thus, a dense homogeneous mass is formed.
Non-ferrous metallurgy
Non-ferrous metallurgy is characterized by a variety of production methods. Main two:
1. Pyrometallurgical, it is more common in the production of many metals. It is carried out by melting metals, reducing or oxidizing. In this process, the heat source is sulfur, which is contained in the ore itself. It is also used as a chemical reagent.
2. Hydrometallurgical, based on the leaching process, by converting them into soluble compounds.
In addition to these two types, electrolytic processes are used. Aqueous solutions or molten media are taken as the basis.
The metallothermic process is less commonly used. In the course of this method, other metals are used, which are more similar to oxygen, and on their basis the necessary metal is restored. There are a number of other methods, but they are not so common: chemical-thermal, cyanidation, chloride sublimation.
How copper is produced
There are 2 ways to obtain copper, it is obtained from ore and concentrates:
1. Hydrometallurgical, a rare method. In exceptional cases, it is used, for example, if it is required to process oxidized or native ores. The disadvantage of this method is the inability to extract precious metals along the way.
2. Pyrometallurgical, on the contrary, makes this operation available, so its use is more appropriate. 85-90% of copper is produced in this way, obtaining copper from sulfide ore. This is a rather complex process, it includes several stages. The main ones are the following: preparatory stage, smelting or smelting of copper matte, obtaining black copper by converting matte, refining, metal production. the initial preparatory stage includes: enrichment and, if required, roasting of the metal. Refining takes place in 2 stages, the first is fire, the second is electrolytic.
Pots at Alcoa's Norwegian aluminum smelter in Mosjøen
aluminum industry
Aluminum is obtained by the electrolytic method, there are other methods, but today it is more modern.
Consists of two stages:
1. Get alumina (Al 2 O 3), the main raw material is,
2. Get liquid aluminum. The alumina obtained at the first stage by electrolysis produces liquid aluminum as a result.
In the world, alumina, based on the Bayer method, is obtained from bauxite. Bayer is an Austrian engineer who worked in Russia. In addition to this method, there is another method - obtaining alumina from bauxite and nepheline, that is, the sintering method. These are alkaline methods, due to which they are isolated. Further, it is dissolved in an electrolyte and aluminum is obtained by electrolysis. The electrolyte consists of several components, the main one being cryolite. Ideally, Na 3 AlF 6 (3NaF AlF 3) in the ratio with NaF: AlF 3 is 3:1. You can save on electricity, since a ratio of 2.6-2.8: 1 is sufficient for this process. To obtain this proportion, aluminum is added to the cryolite. It is also possible to lower the melting point by adding small amounts of CaF 2 , MgF 2 and NaCl to the electrolyte. For an industrial electrolyte, the main components should be as follows: Na 3 AlF 6 - 75-90%; AlF 3 - 5-12%; MgF 2 - 2-5%; CaF 2 - 2-4%; Al 2 O 3 - 2-10%. If this ratio is not observed, the properties of the electrolyte change, for example, Al 2 O 3 was increased by more than 10%, the refractoriness will immediately increase. If the content is reduced below 1.3%, then the electrolysis mode is automatically violated.
When aluminum is removed from the electron bath, it is called raw aluminum. Such an element contains metallic and non-metallic impurities, gases. The latter include: hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfuric and other gases. The metal composition of raw aluminum consists of: Fe, Si, Cu, Zn and so on. Alumina, lining particles, electrolytes, if their particles are mechanically entrained, will be classified as non-metallic mixtures. Can subject aluminum and chlorination, it is necessary for cleaning. It is necessary to clean the metal from Na, Ca, Mg gases, impurities.
After all the procedures, aluminum is poured into electric furnaces, which also perform the function of a mixer. It is possible to place it in, aluminum settles for 30-45 minutes. After this procedure, the metal will be completely cleaned from gas, non-metal components. The aluminum poured into different baths is connected. After that, it will be poured onto the conveyor, you get a pig. In some industries, there are continuous casting installations, then aluminum is poured into ingots and rolled. The purity of such aluminum is above 99.8%.
How other non-ferrous metals are produced
Other non-ferrous metals include: lead, tin, zinc, tungsten and molybdenum. For their production, some of the above methods and production methods are used. In general, the essence of the process is preserved, the reagents and aggregates are different, there are production features.
Metallurgy is adjacent to the development, production, operation of machines, equipment, units used in metallurgy. prom.
To study the laws of the processes of concentration, extraction, production, refining and alloying of metals, as well as processes associated with changes in the composition, structure and properties of alloys and materials, semi-finished products and products from them in metallurgy, physical, chemical, physical .-chem. and mat. research methods.
M Metallurgy is divided into black and non-ferrous. Ferrous metallurgy covers the production of iron, steel and ferroalloys (see Iron alloys). Metallurgy is closely related to coke chemistry, the production of refractory materials. Ferrous metallurgy also includes the production of rolled products, steel, cast iron, and other products (ferrous metals account for ~ 95% of all metal products produced in the world). In the 70s. there was a tendency to replace ferrous metals with aluminum and titanium alloys, as well as composite, polymer, ceramic. materials, which, together with the high quality of the produced metals and the low metal intensity of products in the industrially developed capitalist. countries led to a decrease in the volume of production of ferrous metals in these countries (Table 1).
Table 1.-PRODUCTION OF STEEL AND CAST IRON IN A NUMBER OF COUNTRIES, MN.T
* Data for 1985. ** Data for 1982.
For example, in the USSR in 1988 the consumption of steel and fiberglass was resp. 160 and 6 million tons, while in the USA - 100 and 28 million tons.
Non-ferrous metallurgy includes the production and processing of non-ferrous and rare metals and their alloys. Along the way, prom-st colormetallurgy produces dec. chem. comp., materials, miner. fertilizers, etc. Metallurgy, processes are also used for the production of semiconductor materials (Si, Ge, Se, Te, As, P, etc.), radioactive metals. Modern metallurgy covers the processes of obtaining many. periodic elements. systems (except gaseous). Volumes of production (1987) of certain non-ferrous metals (thousand tons): USA-Al 3200, Cu 1560, Zn 260, Pb 330 (metal in mined ore); Japan-Al 41, Cu 980, Zn 666, Pb 268; FRG-Al 737.7, Cu 421.2 (1986), Zn 370.9 (1986), Pb 366.6 (1986).
Modern metallurgical production includes the following. technol. operations: preparation and enrichment of ores; hydrometallurgical (see Hydrometallurgy), pyrometallurgical. (see Pyrometallurgy, Metalothermy), electrothermal. and electrolytic. metal extraction and refining processes; obtaining products by sintering powders (see Powder metallurgy, Sintering); chem. and physical metal refining methods; melting and pouring of metals and alloys; processing of metals by pressure (rolling, stamping, etc.); thermal, thermomechanical, chemical-thermal and other types of metal processing to give them the required sv-in, etc .; processes for applying protective and hardening coatings (on metals and metals on products).
In enrich. technologies naib. widespread flotation., gravitational., magn. and electrostatic. enrichment methods (see Mineral enrichment, Flotation). Flotation. processes are used to enrich more than 90% of non-ferrous and rare metal ores. The concentrates obtained after enrichment are subjected to drying, composition averaging, mixing and agglomeration (agglomeration, pelletizing, briquetting) in order to increase their reaction. ability and performance of their last. redistribution.
As a result, pyrometallurgical processes (include oxidation, reduction, etc.) the metal is concentrated and impurities are removed into the resulting phases (vapor-gas phase, metallic and slag melts, matte and solid matter). After separation, the phases are sent for processing for further extraction of valuable components. For the intensification of the metallurgical processes (in converters and autoclaves), gaseous O 2 , Cl 2 and other oxidizing agents are introduced. C, CO, H 2 and active metals are used as reducing agents. Common restores. processes - blast-furnace smelting, smelting of secondary Cu, Sn and Pb in shaft furnaces, production of ferroalloys and titanium slag in ore recovery. electric furnaces, magnifier-mich. restoration of TiCl 4 to obtain metallic. Ti. Oxidize refining has been developed in open-hearth and converter steel production, in the production of anodic Cu and in Pb technology. For extraction and refining of metals found application tehnol. processes using chlorides, iodides and carbonyls of metals, as well as distillation, rectification, vacuum separation and sublimation, etc. Out-of-furnace methods of steel refining, processes in vacuum and Ar medium in the technology of highly reactive metals (Ti, Zr, Nb, etc.) .
The production of products with special properties and high quality is carried out by powder metallurgy, which makes it possible to achieve higher technical and economic. performance compared to traditional. ways. To obtain high-purity metals and semiconductor materials, zone melting, the growth of single crystals by drawing from melts, and other methods are used. Main direction of tech. progress in the field of obtaining castings from the melt. metals and alloys is the transition to continuous casting of steel and alloys and to the combination of casting and metal forming processes (non-ingot rolling of Al, Cu, Zn, etc.).
Metal forming, forging and stamping production and pressing are the most important technologies. metallurgical processes. and mechanical engineering. enterprises. Rolling-basic method of processing metals and alloys. It is carried out on rolling mills - powerful highly automated. aggregates with a performance of several. million tons of rolled products per year. Rolling produces sheet and section metal, bimetals, pipes, bent and periodic. profiles and other types of products. The wire is obtained by drawing.
Thermal processing includes hardening, annealing and tempering of metals. In addition to the processing of finished parts for machine building. enterprises, heat treatment is subjected to many. types of products for metallurgical. factories - steel rails (volumetric hardening or hardening of the head), thick sheets and reinforcing steels, thin sheets of transformer steel, etc. Of great importance in metallurgy are the processes of chemical-thermal treatment and application to metal decomp. protective coatings, eg. galvanizing, tinning (see Electroplating), applying plastics, etc.
Modern metallurgy is characterized by emissions into the environment (tab. 2.3), in the USSR, also negligible. application of continuous casting of steel, low return of metals for reuse, low complex use of raw materials and abs. the predominance of steels in the balance of metals (95%).
Tab. 2.-EMISSIONS (T/DAY PER 1 MILLION STEEL SOLD IN YEAR) TO THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE MAIN METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIES IN THE USSR
In the USSR in the 50s. for the first time in the world, a method of continuous casting of steel was developed, which sharply reduces the loss of metal in the production process. In 1986, this method was poured in the USSR 14% of the steel being smelted, in Japan - 92.7, Germany - 84.6, Yuzh. Korea-71.19, USA-53.4%. Mn. countries, including Japan, Germany, and others, completely abandoned the environmentally harmful open-hearth production of steel; main methods of obtaining steel in the capitalist. countries - oxygen-converter and electric steelmaking. In the USSR it means quantity of steel is produced by the open-hearth method.
In the USSR in 1986, 161 million tons of steel were produced, of which 112 million tons of finished rolled products were obtained; t. arr., the loss of metal is 49 million tons (30.4%). In the US, the same losses amount to 18.4%, Germany - 9.4%, South. Korea-1%. Return (%) of metals for reuse (recycling of metals) is estimated on average in the world: Al 11.7, Cu 40.9, Au 15.9, Fe 27.9, Pb 40, Hg 20.6, Ni 19.1 , Ag 47.2, Sn 20.4, Zn 27.
Main ways of development and improvement of metallurgy - the integrated use of raw materials, reducing the consumption of raw materials, energy costs and metal consumption per unit of metal products, ensuring the growth of rolled ferrous metals without increasing their production, the creation of environmentally friendly technologies. processes.
Reducing the number of waste to a minimum (non-waste production) can not be. carried out within the limits of only metallurgical. industries, but requires intersectoral cooperation (closed production) and a new concept for organizing production - "processes to raw materials" (i.e., to places rich inminerals, etc. nature. resources) in contrast to the practice currently used in the USSR - "raw materials for processes". For the first time in ecology, the concept of organizing production from production was proposed by Academician A. E. Fersman in 1932. The transition to such production (processes to raw materials) will increase the integrated use of raw materials and production waste (reproduction of raw materials), ensure the recycling of metals , create metallic materials, taking into account resource saving and the prevalence of metals in nature, to organize closed technol. (chemical and metallurgical) complexes in regions with a high concentration of deposits of various technological orientations (for example, the Kola Peninsula, the Norilsk region). Within the limits of closed production, m. the tasks of providing production with raw materials, structural materials were solved and protection was provided
